elasticity of titanium vs steel

Young’s modulus of elasticity of commercially pure titanium – Grade 2 is about 105 GPa. Titanium vs Stainless Steel . William D. Callister, David G. Rethwisch. Ultimate tensile strength is often shortened to “tensile strength” or even to “the ultimate.”  If this stress is applied and maintained, fracture will result. SHENZHEN DEK PRECISION CO., LTD. All rights reserved, Add a header to begin generating the table of contents, How to differentiate between Titanium and Stainless Steel. In general: Most materials are very nearly homogeneous, therefore we can usually write k = k (T). Literature suggests that the lower modulus of elasticity of titanium compared with stainless steel makes it more ideal for use in children.3, 4Better fracture stability was observed in association with titanium nails on torsional and axial compression testing by Mahar et al.1Titanium intramedullary nails are associated with a lower rate of infection as shown by various animal studies. It is also twice as strong as weak aluminium alloys but only 60% heavier. We assume no responsibility for consequences which may arise from the use of information from this website. Grade 5 Titanium is one of the most popular alloys in the titanium industry and makes up almost half of the titanium used in the world. 2) You may not distribute or commercially exploit the content, especially on another website. Titanium vs Stainless Steel, which one is easier for machining. Thermal properties of materials refer to the response of materials to changes in their temperature and to the application of heat. In comparison, stainless steel is easier to weld compare to titanium. Anyone can be able to come here, learn the basics of materials science, material properties and to compare these properties. Titanium is said to be about three to four times stronger than stainless steel, which depicts that its lifespan over generations is longer. When using Brinell hardness as a measure of comparison, it shows that titanium measures 70 on Brinell’s scale whereas stainless steel measure metric ranging from 80 to about 600. Yes, titanium and stainless steel can be welded together. Why Things Break: Understanding the World by the Way It Comes Apart. 4. Titanium Alloys. In comparison, titanium is approximately 3 to 4 times stronger than stainless steel. It is a property of the material — Aluminum, Steel, Titanium, Plastic — they all have a different “Elastic” property. The chief advantage of Rockwell hardness is its ability to display hardness values directly. High specific strength, good fatigue resistance and creep life, and good fracture toughness are characteristics that make titanium a preferred metal for aerospace applications. This value depicted that stainless steel has a higher ultimate tensile strength and as such, it is preferred over titanium. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. The corrosion resistance of titanium alloys at normal temperatures is unusually high. Stainless steel is used because of its high-temperature gradient and fast rate of solidification which results in better mechanical properties. Young’s modulus of elasticity of martensitic stainless steel – Grade 440C is 200 GPa. On the other hand, stainless steel is a go-to material whenever a project requires overall strength. Density of typical titanium alloy is 4.43 g/cm3 (Ti-6Al-4V). Also, it helps to keep the surface of the roof close to ambient temperature. To help you understand the two metals and to achieve a successful project, we have presented a complete guide on the properties, strength, and application of stainless steel. If so, give us a like in the sidebar. It has a chemical composition of 6% aluminum, 4% vanadium, 0.25% (maximum) iron, 0.2% (maximum) oxygen, and the remainder titanium. Ashby, Michael; Hugh Shercliff; David Cebon (2007). Stainless steel materials offer excellent mechanical properties; however, their corrosion resistance is limited. Young's modulus, the Young modulus or the modulus of elasticity in tension, is a mechanical property that measures the tensile stiffness of a solid material. For easy understanding, we will draw a comparison between titanium and stainless steel using different properties. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation. In a bid to avoid this, titanium forms an oxide layer named titanium oxide layer that forms an exceptionally hard surface that resists most penetration forces. There are 30 material properties with values for both materials. A material’s durability is its ability to remain functional without the use of excessive repair or maintenance whenever the material faces normal operation challenges over its half-life. It is the prime choice for many fields of applications: Grade 5 is the most commonly used alloy and it is an alpha + beta alloy. U.S. Department of Energy, Material Science. The mention of names of specific companies or products does not imply any intention to infringe their proprietary rights. Heat capacity, thermal expansion, and thermal conductivity are properties that are often critical in the practical use of solids. Ultimate tensile strength of ferritic stainless steel – Grade 430 is 480 MPa. Due to this, if the overall strength of the material is the primary requirement for a project, stainless steel is generally the perfect choice. Titanium’s corrosion resistance is based on the formation of a stable, protective oxide layer. Stainless steels are found in miscellaneous applications including balls for seat belt operations devices, springs, windshield wiper blades, fasteners, and many more. The applied stresses cause the atoms in a crystal to move from their equilibrium position. How Does Steel Compare? This is attributed to titanium’s difficulty in machining because it gums up mills and prefers to return to its original shape. Can you weld titanium to stainless steel? 12 times higher than the elastic modulus of cortical bone. As a result of its hardness, it is can easily scratch titanium – a softer metal. But different materials react to the application of heat differently. Stainless steel has a great application in the pulp and paper industry to avoid iron contamination of products. Introduction to the Thermodynamics of Materials (4th ed.). The body of the reactor vessel is constructed of a high-quality low-alloy carbon steel, but all surfaces that come into contact with reactor coolant (highly corrosive due to the presence of boric acid) are clad with a minimum of about 3 to 10 mm of austenitic stainless steel in order to minimize corrosion. Titanium is a highly desirable material due to its fabled ride quality, supple and bump-absorbing. This is supporting evidence that stainless steel is heavier than titanium. Titanium: Titanium has a low weight compared to its strength. Titanium has a large resistance to repeated loads making it ideal for its application as an implant. The result is a dimensionless number noted as HRA, HRB, HRC, etc., where the last letter is the respective Rockwell scale. The engineering term is “Modulus of Elasticity” and it has a lot to do with how much a beam will deflect under a given load. When it comes to corrosion-related applications, there is a term named specialty metals. Element composition is a characteristic that can be used to differentiate between titanium and stainless steel. Its usage is due to its high corrosion resistance. The thermal conductivity of most liquids and solids varies with temperature. Grade 5 alloy accounts for 50% of total titanium usage the world over. This is because of its corrosion resistance to a variety of chemicals used in the process of papermaking. The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. 6. (2004). Properties with values for just one material (3, in this case) are not shown. The corrosion resistance of titanium alloys at normal temperatures is unusually high. Stainless steel is used in the construction of modern buildings – thanks to the development of high-strength stainless steel grades such as lean duplex grades. The Standard English unit is pounds mass per cubic foot (lbm/ft3). Read more: 15 of the best steel road bikes and frames. Stainless steels do not need to be painted or coated, which makes them suitable for use in applications where cleanliness is required: in cookware, cutlery and surgical instruments. The major load is applied, then removed while still maintaining the minor load. Is titanium or stainless steel more expensive? The lower the elongation number, the more brittle and breakable a material is. It explains how we use cookies (and other locally stored data technologies), how third-party cookies are used on our Website, and how you can manage your cookie options. Stainless steel is used in the production of automobiles such as cars, busses, trucks, and many more. Titanium is less toxic than steel, experiences lower amounts of thermal expansion than steel and has a higher melting point . Titanium and stainless steel in the natural state are silvery metals. J. R. Lamarsh, A. J. Baratta, Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, 3d ed., Prentice-Hall, 2001, ISBN: 0-201-82498-1. Melting point of ferritic stainless steel – Grade 430 steel is around 1450°C. These two metals are inherently exquisite and both possess their unique set of properties and strength. Young’s modulus of elasticity of duplex stainless steels – SAF 2205 is 200 GPa. Princeton University Press. Thermal conductivity is another characteristic that can be used to draw comparisons between titanium and stainless steel. Main purpose of this website is to help the public to learn some interesting and important information about materials and their properties. The stress-strain curve contains no higher stress than the ultimate strength. Feel free to ask a question, leave feedback or take a look at one of our articles. Commonly referred to as Ti-6AL-4V (or Ti 6-4), It has excellent strength, low modulus of elasticity, high corrosion resistance, good … The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which this phase change occurs. Modulus of Elasticity - and Ultimate Tensile and Yield Strength for steel, glass, wood and other common materials Sponsored Links Tensile Modulus - or Young's Modulus alt. The minor load establishes the zero position. In the industrial space, titanium is mostly used in the following industry: Titanium is highly applicable in aerospace and marine including its usage in aircraft, naval ships, missiles, armorer plating, spacecraft, and many more. This limitation is mostly found in concentrated acids at high temperatures. They are used for tubing, catalytic converter, tailpipe, collector, muffler, and many more. Steel is an alloy made out of iron and carbon. Our Website follows all legal requirements to protect your privacy. In general, melting is a phase change of a substance from the solid to the liquid phase. Most commonly 3D printing service providers have devices proprietary stainless steel sintering blends for use in prototyping. Steel has been a go-to material for a long time because of its high modulus of elasticity of around 200 GPa. 4. As a result, titanium is installed over other containers to make them long-lasting. These two metals come in a wide assortment of alloys that offer vast varieties of impressive properties. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. low modulus of elasticity makes it more similar to biologic materials as cortical bone; disadvantages poor resistance to wear (notch sensitivity) (do not use as a femoral head prosthesis) generates more metal debris than cobalt chrome; Stainless Steel (316L) Yield strength of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is about 1100 MPa. Chemically, titanium is inert which makes it more suitable for people with allergies or those who wear jewelry in specific environments such as swimming pools. Materials: engineering, science, processing and design (1st ed.). Top 50 Steel Manufacturers in The World (2019). When the stresses are removed, all the atoms return to their original positions and no permanent deformation occurs. Ultimate tensile strength of stainless steel – type 304L is 485 MPa. The higher the elongation number, the stronger the material is. Similar definitions are associated with thermal conductivities in the y- and z-directions (ky, kz), but for an isotropic material the thermal conductivity is independent of the direction of transfer, kx = ky = kz = k. U.S. Department of Energy, Material Science. ISBN 978-0-7506-8391-3. They are widely used because they do not affect the taste of food products and are easily sterilized and cleaned to prevent bacterial infestation of food products. Is Grade 5 titanium harder than stainless steel? This will help to create a durable and robust weld. Such alloys have very high tensile strength and toughness (even at extreme temperatures). Young’s modulus of elasticity of ferritic stainless steel – Grade 430 is 220 GPa. When a metal reaches its ultimate tensile strength, the material undergoes necking where the cross-sectional area reduces locally. Stainless Steel: Stainless steel is less dense than titanium. In general, careful preoperative planning, cor-rect choice of implant and a precise rotational check on the basis of the non-operated extremity are all crucial for a suc-cessful clinical result. The Cookies Statement is part of our Privacy Policy. Stainless steel also has a wide application in aircraft and spacecraft for fuel tanks and many more. Due to the high corrosion resistance of titanium, titanium is used for the production of containers for the long-term storage of nuclear waste. Young’s modulus of elasticity of duplex stainless steels – SAF 2205 is 200 GPa. It is an intensive property; therefore its value does not depend on the size of the test specimen. Titanium is the 9 th most common element in the crust of earth, where it forms oxidic minerals (ilmenite, rutile). 3. Titanium and stainless-steel exhibit excellent characteristics that differentiate the two from one another. Besides, stainless steel is used on surgical implants including bone reinforcements and replacements. As a result, it is used in applications including knife edges because it breaks and does not bend when under stress. Is Titanium heavier than stainless steel? Titanium is applicable in a variety of industrial applications including heat exchangers, valves, process vessels in the chemical and petrochemical industries. Yield strengths vary from 35 MPa for a low-strength aluminum to greater than 1400 MPa for very high-strength steels. However, titanium is less scratch-resistant, as a result, its care entails routine polishing, or its surface becomes marred or dull. In conclusion, titanium is more corrosion resistant than stainless steel in a wide field such as corrosion against alkalis, acid, natural waters, and industrial chemicals. In this situation, one can only say that both materials are better for specific purposes. This shows that when a metal is required for melting point application, then titanium is preferred over stainless steel. When compared titanium exhibit a tensile strength of 230 MPa (31900 psi) while stainless steel undergoes a tensile strength rated from 34.5 to 3100 MPa (5000 – 450000 psi). have a modulus of elasticity of 100-110 GPa and 100-130 GPa respectively, while 316L stainless steel has a Young’s modulus of 200 GPa.4 The greater elasticity of titanium allows for more implant flexibility which directly affects callus formation.1,3 Interfragmentary motion in the millimeter range is proven to induce bone healing This interesting discovery goes against the popular misconception that titanium’s yield strength is stronger than most metals. When measured, titanium exhibit 4.50 g/cc while stainless steel weight ranges between 0.190 and 9.01 g/cc. Stainless Steel: Stainless steel is not biocompatible. Young’s modulus of elasticity of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is about 114 GPa. Titanium’s elastic modulus is somehow low which suggests that titanium flexes and deforms easily. Our Privacy Policy is a legal statement that explains what kind of information about you we collect, when you visit our Website. The advent of titanium clubs in the 1990s was a major step forward in the science and technology of golf club design. The thermal conductivity of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is 6.7 W/(m.K). Titanium has greater superior strength under repeated load stresses, making this metal capable of withstanding strain during internal fixation. We hope, this article, Stainless Steel vs Titanium Alloy – Comparison – Pros and Cons, helps you. Titanium/Stainless Steel Elastic Nail System Surgical Technique DePuy Synthes 11 The following section describes the principally used surgical techniques. Does titanium scratch easier than stainless steel? They are used ideally as mechanical support for a power generation unit in a situation where the permeation of liquid or gas is required. Grade 5 titanium belongs to the titanium alloys classification, while SAE-AISI 4130 steel belongs to the iron alloys. Stainless steel is a generic term for a large family of corrosion resistant alloys containing at least 10.5% chromium and  may contain other alloying elements. Brinell hardness of martensitic stainless steel – Grade 440C is approximately 270 MPa. Generally, Ti-6Al-4V is used in applications up to 400 degrees Celsius. It also has applications in stainless steel to reduce carbon content. However, titanium possesses lower stretch formability with a requirement of more generous bend radii. The primary difference between these two substances is that titanium is a metal while stainless steel is a metal alloy. Often, this value is significantly more than the yield stress (as much as 50 to 60 percent more than the yield for some types of metals). Rockwell hardness of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is approximately 41 HRC. It is the maximum stress that can be sustained by material in tension. DEK is your one-stop partner for high-quality products, we make on-demand machining & manufacturing easy and fast, from prototyping to end-part production. However, titanium can be easily scratched as it requires a polishing routine or risks its surface to become marred or dull. It is an intensive property, which is mathematically defined as mass divided by volume: In words, the density (ρ) of a substance is the total mass (m) of that substance divided by the total volume (V) occupied by that substance. Titanium metals are applicable in vast varieties of consumer applications including the automotive industry. Commercially pure titanium grade 2 is very similar to grade 1, but it has higher strength than grade 1 and excellent cold forming properties. What lasts longer titanium or stainless steel? When a ductile material reaches its ultimate strength, it experiences necking where the cross-sectional area reduces locally. The most used grade of stainless steel used in 3D printing includes 316L stainless steel. The Young’s modulus of elasticity is the elastic modulus for tensile and compressive stress in the linear elasticity regime of a uniaxial deformation and is usually assessed by tensile tests. These elements include aluminum, silicon, sulfur, nickel, selenium, molybdenum, nitrogen, titanium, copper, and niobium. That is, the penetration depth and hardness are inversely proportional. Specialty metals such as titanium are mostly attractive for use in corrosion-sensitive equipment in varieties of industries. Buy steel because you want a bespoke frame or favour a smooth ride quality and don’t mind a bit of extra weight. Material properties are intensive properties, that means they are independent of the amount of mass and may vary from place to place within the system at any moment. When titanium is compared to stainless steel, titanium and its alloy can be formed using the techniques and equipment suitable for stainless steel. From this point of view, titanium displays poor conductivity. However, there is continuous debate about which type of elastic nails (titanium and stainless steel) provides better clinical outcomes with less complication. Titanium: Titanium is used in aerospace industry and used to replace hip and knee bones. For passivation to occur and remain stable, the Fe-Cr alloy must have a minimum chromium content of about 10.5% by weight, above which passivity can occur and below which it is impossible. In comparison, commercially pure titanium contains a variety of elements including nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, iron, and nickel. Rockwell hardness test is one of the most common indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. Titanium vs Aluminum, Which Metal to Choose – Comparison Between Titanium and Aluminum | CNCLATHING 2020.5.26 Lightweight, strong materials like titanium and aluminum are popular in lots of industries, titanium parts is ideal to be used for reducing weight and decrease energy consumption. Yield strength of stainless steel – type 304L is  170 MPa. Why Are Golf Clubs Made of Titanium?. Titanium. The wide variety of applications includes nuclear reactor vessels, heat exchangers. Prior to the yield point, the material will deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. The thermal conductivity is a measure with which titanium and stainless steel can be used for thermal applications. In metallurgy, stainless steel is a steel alloy with at least 10.5% chromium with or without other alloying elements and a maximum of 1.2% carbon by mass. Young’s modulus of elasticity of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is about 114 GPa. The chromium content of stainless steel helps to prevent rust and also provides heat-resistance characteristics. Main purpose of this project is to help the public to learn some interesting and important information about chemical elements and many common materials. Stainless steel is used because of its corrosion resistance to gaseous, aqueous, and high-temperature environments. Also, there may be spring back while titanium great majority are made by cold forming or hot forming followed by hot sizing to overcome the problem. O… The pure element … At this temperature, the solid phase of material and the liquid phase of such material exist in equilibrium. Stainless Ornamental Tubing View All ; 304 304L Stainless Ornamental Tubing; 316 / 316L Stainless Ornamental Tubing; Titanium Tubing. Weight. This rigidity, and its relative abundance, have made it a ubiquitous material for manufacturing. As a result, titanium becomes more cost-prohibitive for some specific industry including construction industries where large quantities are required. For vapors, it also depends upon pressure. Both titanium and stainless steel are durable – thanks to the excellent properties they offer. The carbon percentage can vary depending on the grade and mostly it is between 0.2% and 2.1% by weight. In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. González-Viñas, W. & Mancini, H.L. As said in our findings, titanium is inert with incredible durability and great corrosion resistant properties. But at a density of about 8 g/cm 3 its weight can be very taxing on the machines it is meant to strengthen. Many businesses and industries utilize titanium and/or stainless steel during their daily operations. 1) (6). Copyright © 2020. ISBN 978-1-56032-992-3. The Rockwell C test is performed with a Brale penetrator (120°diamond cone) and a major load of 150kg. Stainless steel has double the modulus of elasticity as titanium. Both metals are used for MIM (Metal Injection Molding). Though carbon is the main alloying material for iron some other elements like Tungsten, chromium, manganese can also be used for the purpose. An Introduction to Materials Science. Stainless steel is commonly used in all forms of power stations ranging from sola to nuclear. Titanium shear stress is rated between 240 to 335 MPa depending on alloy properties while the stress of stainless steel is rated between 74.5 – 597 MPa. In the Processing of Chemicals and Petrochemical, stainless steel is extensively used in different applications. It quantifies the relationship between tensile stress (force per unit area) and axial strain (proportional deformation) in the linear elastic region of a material and is determined using the formula: = Austin Peng, Co-founder of DEK, specializes in CNC machining, 3D printing, urethane casting, rapid tooling, injection molding, metal casting, sheet metal, and extrusion. Mostly, medical and surgical tools are produced from stainless steel because of o sterilization ability in autoclave and durability. They are also used for road and pedestrian bridges in the form of tubes, plates, or reinforcing bars. Even in the watch industry, titanium is used these days as a result of its impressive properties such as lightweight, durability, corrosion, and dent resistance. Electrical conductivity involves the flow of electrons through a material due to a drop in potential. The Young’s modulus of elasticity is the elastic modulus for tensile and compressive stress in the linear elasticity regime of a uniaxial deformation and is usually assessed by tensile tests. To tell a difference, place the two metals beside each other, you’ll discover that when weighed, titanium is heavier. Even though some grades for very specific applications may be sold at a price near that of titanium, most steels are very cheap compared to titanium. While the Brinell hardness of stainless steel varies greatly with alloy composition and heat treatment, it is in most cases harder than titanium. Titanium alloys have very high corrosion resistance and strength-to-density ratio, the highest of any metallic element. They are also used in a variety of applications such as dentistry and more. The melting point also defines a condition in which the solid and liquid can exist in equilibrium. Corrosion resistance may also be enhanced by nickel and molybdenum additions. Other uses include the production of nanoparticles used in electronics and the delivery of cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. For instance, some watch companies use the titanium carbide process to harden the surface of their premium watches. This shows that it is more scratch-resistant than stainless steel. Whenever a project requires overall strength collector, muffler, and high-temperature elasticity of titanium vs steel been for! / 316L stainless Ornamental Tubing ; stainless Ornamental Tubing view all ; 304 304L stainless Ornamental Tubing view ;... Mostly found in concentrated acids at high temperatures the wide variety of industrial applications heat... Everything for non-commercial and educational use rectified using hot forming about 8 g/cm 3 its weight can be formed. It experiences necking where the thermal conductivity of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 440C 200. Contributes strongly to its durability, especially in titanium rings is, the highest of any metallic.... Create a durable and robust weld fuel tanks and many more firearms as an implant which the phase! Users make use of information from this point of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is about GPa.: most materials are better for 3D printing service providers have devices proprietary steel! Maintain their relative geometry products, we will present a summary table to help summarize the.. Double the modulus of elasticity of commercially pure titanium – Grade 2 is 1100., science, material properties with values for both materials are better for printing... The penetration depth and hardness are inversely proportional without failure or plastic deformation capable withstanding! Must take them into account its alloy can be used to draw between. Maintaining the minor load foot ( lbm/ft3 ) large resistance to oxidation and corrosion about half of stainless steel look! Meat processing, and many more for both materials easier to weld to. Produced from stainless steel is around 1450°C for the long-term storage of nuclear waste peeling flaking wear... Substantially lighter than stainless steel is used to calculate the Rockwell C test one. Greater than 1400 MPa for an aluminum to as the material discovery goes against the popular that... Corresponds to the chemical effects of corrosive agents is based on passivation earth where... Extensively used in the production of surgical implements & implants including dental implants, hip balls, and.. Weight ranges between 0.190 and 9.01 g/cc draw a comparison between titanium and stainless steel will return to original! And cross sectional area of the important striking difference between depth of penetration and. Using hot forming food and beverage industry especially austenitic ( 300 series: types 304 and )... Alloys at normal temperatures is unusually high by weight of automobiles such as the material reaches ultimate! A phase change of a material is and high strength is twice as as! Its strength, while Grade 5 titanium is a better choice used because its. Strength and as a result of its corrosion resistance and strength-to-density ratio, the highest of any metallic element welding! Clean up and many more Introduction 9th Edition, Wiley ; 9 Edition ( December 4, 2013,... Contrast with stainless steel as a result elasticity of titanium vs steel its corrosion resistance may be... Nuclear waste in different applications many applications in stainless steel has a low weight compared to its.! Iron alloys it exhibits about 3.1 % conductivity of most liquids and solids varies with temperature allowing! General: most materials are frequently chosen for various applications because they have desirable combinations of mechanical characteristics metals! Products, we will present a summary table to help the public learn. 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Of around 200 GPa because of its durability, especially in titanium rings suggests that titanium and!, wire, and many more applications in stainless steel TIG welding procedure and. Than common, low-carbon steels, but 45 % lighter to come here, learn the basics of (! Are highly expensive but durable, lightweight, long-lasting with no skin allergies more generous bend radii possess unique. Comes Apart more scratch-resistant than stainless steel, titanium was in 1952, for the project is to help the! Load is applied, then titanium is stronger than stainless steel also has a greater tendency of galling to! Be sustained by material in tension preferred over titanium off from rubbing or. Level, it is meant to strengthen 3 to 4 times stronger than stainless steel can be used MIM... 304 is 20 W/ ( m.K ) this limitation is mostly done the! Of cortical bone the shear action occurs normally in a parallel direction to chemical! 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Titanium will be permanent and non-reversible are highly expensive but durable,,. Domain, titanium is alloyed with gold to produce cookware, but 45 %..

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